November 17, 2000
Mentors and Tormentors in Doctoral Education
Like many ecosystems, higher education develops in fits and starts, through what evolutionary biologists call patterns of "punctuated equilibrium." A major reform sweeps through the system, then stays in place for decades or even centuries until pressures for change grow great enough to force a new round of reform. American graduate education achieved its essential modern form in the late 19th century, when the Ph.D. degree was imported from Germany. Adapted to the needs of American academic
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